Presentation: Code-Switching in Children
To listen to the audio on PowerPoint:
Blog 1: So... What IS Code-Switching?
If you’re bilingual (able to speak at least two languages) then it’s possible that you code-switch every now and again. This happens when a person alternates between their languages, whether they choose to use them with different groups or if they’re switching them within the same conversation.
Take my cousin Gwen and I, for example (both Dutch and English speakers). Here’s a sample conversation:
A: Do you want something to drink?
G: Zoals?
[Such as?]
A: Sap, limonade, koude water?
[Juice, squash, cold water?]
G: Apple juice, alsjeblieft.
[please]
A: Met ijs?
[With ice?]
G: Yes, please.
A: Coming right up.
Here, you can see that I start off in English and Gwen in Dutch. I reply to her in the same language, but she then does something completely different and mixes both when requesting the apple juice. An important thing to remember about code-switching (CS) is that bilinguals don’t do it because they’re ‘dumb’ or because each individual language isn’t fluent enough on its own.
Yes, some speakers may be stronger in one language than the other and may feel more comfortable using that one most of the time (in my case, English), but that doesn’t mean to say that the other one is useless. When I started the conversation in English I didn’t choose to do so because I couldn’t do it in Dutch, but because it felt convenient at the time. Similarly, the questions I asked in Dutch I also knew in English, but I switched because it felt appropriate.
While CS may not always happen on purpose, it’s deliberately used in foreign advertising when certain words, names and phrases are left in their original language to make them appear more exotic. One example is this Dutch McDonald’s advert (see screenshots below).
Though the voiceover speaks in Dutch, you can see that the ‘Big Mac’ keeps its name and hasn’t been renamed ‘Groote Mac’ (‘groot’ being the Dutch word for ‘big’). Even the chicken and bacon versions go by their English names and aren’t translated. Surprisingly, the advert ends with an English slogan, proving that McDonald’s is so well-known across the globe that they don’t feel the need to adapt their marketing strategies in foreign countries because they know that people will buy their burgers regardless. However, CS in adverts isn’t always well-received by audiences. What do you think?
Next time you’re abroad, or if you happen to live in a country with two official languages, keep your eyes peeled when you’re out and about or watching TV. It’s likely that you’ll see something like this yourself!
Blog 2: Do you code-switch at home and language-shift at school? Here's how to tell:
It goes without saying that we live in an extremely multilingual world. More specifically, one that has 7097 languages. Yet, just 23 of these are spoken by more than half of the planet, with 86% using Asian or European tongues. Overall, it’s estimated that between 60-75% of the population is bilingual, meaning that it shouldn’t be unusual to meet someone like you or me who can speak two languages. Here in the UK, for instance, the foreign-born population sat at 8.7 million in 2015 and it is becoming increasingly common to find several nationalities in the classroom.
But what does all that have to do with CS? Well, in short: everything. Like many young bilinguals in the UK, I moved here at a young age and spoke only my home language (Dutch). Even though my Dad was English, I knew only the basics when I started school but managed to catch up quickly, despite the headteacher failing to find a Dutch-speaking teacher. As my English improved, Mama insisted that Dad use more English at home, although I was (mostly) still speaking to her in our mother tongue.
This idea of using different languages around different people in different places is what’s known as language-shifting. Many immigrant children want to hide their first languages and may refuse to speak them in school because they want to fit in and don’t wish to be seen as outcasts. Others are worried that monolinguals may think they’re using their first language to talk about them in secret. For me, I loved getting a chance to speak some Dutch and talk about my heritage. It made me feel special and proud, and I enjoyed showing off because all my peers admired how unique I was. I still do!
You may have parents who want you to practice your new language skills, or who insist that you speak your mother tongue so that you don’t forget it or your roots. As a result, you may use a mix of both (code-switch). They may speak to you in Bengali and you might reply in English, or vice versa. Sometimes a bilingual’s parents don’t speak the dominant language at all. The child may speak Polish to the adults but use English or code-switch with their siblings, possibly even for educational purposes.
I went on to win an award for how quickly I learned English, and even though it’s now my best and most-used language, Dutch will always be important to me and I continue to use it at every chance I get because it’s a part of my identity. Don’t feel like you have to restrict your codes (a fancy word for ‘languages’) to certain places because you’re afraid of what others think! Remember, bilinguals like YOU are more employable, not to mention all the other benefits!
At the end of the day, though, you can speak TWO languages. How cool is that?
Blog 3: Yes, you really CAN code-switch online
Over the course of the last two blogs we’ve talked about CS in speech at home and school but also as something that can pop up in advertising as well. So, it’s safe to assume that you won’t often find it elsewhere in writing, especially on social media, right? Well, think again.
Not only do people code-switch on sites like Facebook, but they even do it on purpose, not unlike the way they do in speech. Similarly, it may even be accidental. If you have a network of multilingual ‘friends’ or follow international pages online then spotting CS in their status updates, Tweets and private messages is much more common than you might think.
It’s even used in the same ways as everyday speech: showing off, marking identity, addressing a particular person, replacing an unknown/forgotten word or phrase, pleasing or ‘rebelling’ against society, exercising authority, communicating emotions, attracting attention, distancing yourself from others and vice versa, expressing yourself better… the list goes on. I’m sure you’ll have used CS for one of these at some stage or even just to add some flavour to the conversation, or simply because you can. For some groups, CS just is the normal way to communicate.
I mainly use English on my social media, except for the occasional Dutch phrase in posts about Dutch events or relatives. CS is much more common in my chats with Dutch family members, as you can see in the WhatsApp screenshot. Like we discussed in the first blog, you can see a mix of both languages being used in the same sentence but also replies being given in each on separate turns. The same goes for the two Facebook samples, with one mixing Dutch and English and the other English and Kiswahili.
So, there you have it. Proof that CS occurs both in speech and online, and for essentially identical purposes. Maybe you’ve already caught yourself or someone you follow doing it, or perhaps you haven’t noticed it until now. Either way, CS exists in all aspects of bilingual life and the wider community, so those who see it as ‘abnormal behaviour’ should take a moment to think and realise just how globalised our society really is.
Think Piece: Understanding Bilingual's Usage of Code-Switching
Contrary to popular belief at the time, Grosjean (1989) proclaimed, “the bilingual is not two monolinguals in one”. Rather, he proposed that their linguistic abilities were shaped in response to the needs of their surroundings and that each served a different purpose, often to differing extents. Thus, this belief that language competency is easily measurable and clear-cut is invalid. Instead, it follows that a bilingual is not fully fluent in either linguistic resource, but possesses enough to successfully engage in day-to-day interaction. Should any difficulties arise, then they can draw upon their second language to fill the void, or “code switch” (Gumperz, 1982).
Just a bilingual and conversational phenomenon?
According to Gardner-Chloros (2009), code-switching (henceforth ‘CS’) is more a verbal tool than a written one, although a breadth of recent literature (Androutsopoulos, 2006; Parveen and Aslam, 2013; Halim and Moros, 2014; Birnie-Smith, 2016; Botha, 2017) has noted that it occurs in online forums too, particularly social media websites like Facebook. Furthermore, Bullock and Toribio (2012) claim that CS is “exclusive” to bilinguals yet acknowledge that “[a]ll speakers selectively draw on the language varieties in their linguistic repertoire” in situations like those Grosjean (1989) described above. Despite this, they separate the monolingual variety and label it “style-shifting”, although this attempt at distinguishing the terms raises an important question: are we ALL in fact ‘multilingual’?
Why code-switch?
CS has several uses for the bilingual. In society, these are all determined by context, or the people, places and situations in or around which the speaker finds themselves.
- Concealment
Occasionally, circumstances arise where one may want to communicate covert information to an individual while in the company of others. If the speaker believes their addressee is the only one present who can converse in their shared second language then CS may be used to preserve the secrecy of the message and conceal it from potential overhearers (Clark and Schaefer, 1992: 278). Personally, I used CS for similar purposes in my youth to exclude my non-Dutch-speaking brother from mine and my cousin’s (then a sole Dutch speaker) activities so that he would not understand and join in.
- Showing off
My personal favourite, sometimes a bilingual just wants to showcase their linguistic abilities. I relished being the ‘exotic’ student in class who came from a foreign country with an accompanying language, and enjoyed getting a chance to speak it and basically do something my peers could not. What good is having these abilities if you never use them?
- Indexing identity
Following on from this, much motivation behind CS stems from speakers wanting to display their identity, may it be national or ethnic. An immigrant such as myself may use their home language (though the minority) by way of communicating that I do not truly belong to this society and am proudly representing another culture. Alternatively, in countries like Kenya which comprise of several tribes (each with their own tongue), individuals may index their heritage through conversing with others in their native code, such as Kitaveta or Luhya. These exemplars aside, Auer (2005) posits that employing CS is itself a way of signalling that one belongs to a unique community: the bilingual one.
- Forgotten word/phrase
As any bilingual will likely have experienced, there comes a time when one cannot remember a certain expression in the target language and thus resorts to using their back-up. Heredia and Altarriba (2001: 165) suggest that this inability to recall the desired word relates to TOT or the ‘tip-of-the-tongue’ phenomenon, an experience familiar to both bi- and monolinguals, though one that is statistically more recurrent for multilinguals (Kreiner and Degani, 2015).
- Lack of proficiency
As previously stated, no bilingual is fully fluent in either of their tongues, or at least not to the same extent. One is likely to be weaker, meaning the speaker’s vocabulary is limited and requires intervention from the stronger language to complete the interaction (Heredia and Altarriba, 2001). This could be due to bilinguals receiving education in one code but communicating more in the second, although their written and spoken skills in each may differ. However, the authors assert that this idea is not straightforward as it implies that verbal ability is more important than its reading or writing counterparts, which also play a major role. Additionally, it begs the question of what it means to be bilingual, in terms of how much one needs to know in each language to qualify. Again, these issues are not the subject of this paper but could be investigated in forthcoming literature.
- Combination
Heredia and Altarriba (2001) also put forward that perhaps a “combination” of factors may lead to CS, such as the retrieval issue in conjunction with how frequently bilinguals use a specific word or language. If they favour one code and often repeat the same phrases then they are more likely to remember these in comparison to their linguistically-neglected counterparts.
- Untranslatability
Simply put, bilinguals resort to CS because the target language lacks an identical translation of the particular idea they are trying to convey. The other language is able to fully encapsulate the meaning and expresses it more accurately, thus the speaker may leave it in its original form (Zentella, 1997; Heredia and Altarriba, 2001).
- Rights
Using CS may be done strategically, in that the chosen languages may be affiliated with certain conversational “rights and obligations” (Auer, 2005) which are triggered once the speaker uses them (Myers-Scotton, 1993). For instance, a teacher may switch to the tongue being taught in a foreign language classroom to command the students’ attention, and so this notion of CS ‘rights’ may link to power in terms of obtaining respect and signalling authority. In a similar vein, this view may correspond to the languages attitudes and ideologies of a society. Bilinguals may code-switch because a level of prestige is associated with a particular code and they feel obligated to adhere to this hierarchy should they suddenly find themselves in the presence of locals, or vice versa to ‘rebel’ against the ‘norm’.
Conclusions and Implications
The reasons listed here are a mere few from an otherwise non-exhaustive list that is ever-expanding. Ultimately, context dictates the role of CS and the specific languages employed. Bilinguals code-switch for several reasons (not necessarily always deliberately) but we cannot deny that it is restricted to the former alone. Recently, academics initially argued that a more strategic version of CS – translanguaging (García, 2009) – is instrumental in the L2 classroom, though other discursive functions (see Wei, 2011; 2018; Wei and Hua, 2013) have since been suggested. Translanguaging proposes that concepts like CS, lexical borrowing etc. go beyond named languages and are in fact universal behaviours carried out by all speakers, which in turn hints that we could indeed all be ‘multi-’ or “translingual” (Canagarajah, 2013) in some form or another. Overall, CS is likely to remain a constant in our increasingly globalising world, and academics are sure to discover multiple other uses and implications as they become apparent.
References:
Androutsopoulos, J. (2006) Multilingualism, Diaspora, and the Internet: Codes and Identities on German-Based Diaspora Websites. Journal of Sociolinguistics [Internet], 10 (4), pp. 520-547. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/mzh/2012900434 [Accessed 7th March 2018].
Auer, P. (2005) A postscript: code-switching and social identity. Journal of Pragmatics [Internet], 37 (3), pp. 403-11. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edselp/S0378216604002218?target=eds [Accessed 2nd March 2018].
Birnie-Smith, J. R. (2016) Ethnic Identity and Language Choice across Online Forums. International Journal of Multilingualism [Internet], 13 (2), pp. 165-183. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/mzh/2016750626 [Accessed 18th March 2018].
Botha, W. (2017) The use of English in the social network of a student in South China. English Today [Internet], 33 (4), pp. 19-30. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edb/126323503 [Accessed 18th March 2018].
Bullock, B. E. and Toribio, A. J. eds. (2012) The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-Switching. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Canagarajah, S. (2013) Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan Relations. London, Routledge.
Clark, H. H. and Schaefer, E. F. (1992) Dealing with Overhearers. In: Clark, H. H. (ed.) Arenas of Language Use. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, pp. 248-274.
García, O. (2009) Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Gardner-Chloros, P. (2009) Code-Switching. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Grosjean, F. (1989) Neurolinguists, Beware! The Bilingual Is Not Two Monolinguals in One Person. Brain and Language, 36, pp. 3-15. Available from: https://web.uniroma1.it/seai/sites/default/files/grosjean1989.pdf [Accessed 19th March 2018].
Gumperz, J. J. (1982) Discourse Strategies. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Halim, N. S. and Moros, M. (2014) The Functions of Code-switching in Facebook Interactions. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences [Internet], 118, pp. 126-134. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edselp/S187704281401547X [Accessed 14th March 2018].
Heredia, R. R. and Altarriba, J. (2001) Bilingual Language Mixing: Why Do Bilinguals Code-Switch? Current Directions in Psychological Science [Internet], 10 (5), pp. 164-8. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edsjsr/edsjsr.20182730 [Accessed 1st March 2018].
Kreiner, H. and Degani, T. (2015) Tip-of-the-tongue in a second language: The effects of brief first-language exposure and long-term use. COGNITION [Internet], 137, pp. 106-115. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edsbl/RN367849666 [Accessed 20th March 2018].
Myers-Scotton, C. (1993) Social Motivations for Code-Switching. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Parveen, S. and Aslam, S. (2013) A Study on Reasons for Code-Switching in Facebook by Pakistani Urdu English Bilinguals. Language in India [Internet], 13 (11), pp. 564-591. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edsgao/edsgcl.352616036 [Accessed 18th March 2018].
Wei, L. (2011). Moment analysis and translanguaging space: Discursive construction of identities by multilingual Chinese youth in Britain. Journal of Pragmatics [Internet], 43, pp. 1222-1235. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edselp/S0378216610002535 [Accessed 18th March 2018].
Wei, L. and Hua, Z. (2013) Translanguaging Identities and Ideologies: Creating Transnational Space Through Flexible Multilingual Practices Amongst Chinese University Students in the UK. Applied Linguistics [Internet], 34 (5), pp. 516-536. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edswss/000327506300002 [Accessed 18th March 2018].
Wei, L. (2018) Translanguaging as a Practical Theory of Language. Applied Linguistics [Internet], 39 (1), pp. 9-31. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edswss/000424888700002 [Accessed 18th March 2018].
Zentella, A.C. (1997) Growing Up Bilingual: Puerto Rican Children in New York. Oxford, Blackwell.
Commentary
This project has sought to explore the various areas and uses of code-switching (CS) in society, through: blogs geared toward younger bilinguals, a presentation addressing the phenomenon in children, a think piece detailing just a fraction of its conversational functions and a mind map that connects all these theories. This topic was inspired by my own personal experiences as a bilingual, although prior to enrolling at YSJ I was not aware of the technical term for this behaviour nor was I too knowledgeable about it until I studied Multilingualism and later Interdisciplinary Linguistics.
This is one reason why I targeted teenage bilinguals in my blogs and covered issues like CS at home, school, online and in general, because I have always been fascinated by bi-/multilingualism and would have appreciated learning about elements like CS that occur in day-to-day life. Only when I studied it at university did I truly understand myself and the behaviour I had exhibited over the course of my bilingual life. Secondly, the “monolingual habitus” (Gogolin, 1997) that surrounds Britain is one that has brought to the forefront in recent decades. This is due to heavy migration and society becoming increasingly multi-ethnic and -lingual as a result, to the extent that it likely prompted the introduction of additional language-related questions into the census as of 2011 (Sebba, 2018). Hence, I desired to stress that CS is remarkable and nothing foreign children should feel the need to suppress or retire.
Furthermore, my presentation explained the basics of CS to parents and teachers in a bid to instil this attitude from an early age so that young bilinguals are raised in and exposed to environments where drawing on their linguistic repertoires is encouraged. Studies have revealed that some children deliberately hide or refuse to their home languages altogether, for fear of risking successful integration into the social groups at school (Ncoko, Osman and Cockcroft, 2000; Siraj-Blatchford and Clarke, 2000; Pagett, 2006). Both the PowerPoint and the think piece touch on the recent concept of translanguaging (García, 2009) and mention its origins as a tool in the L2 classroom (Williams. 2002) but also its broader implications as a universal behaviour practiced by all speakers (Canagarajah, 2013), in a bid to prove the ‘normality’ of CS by comparison. Danjo’s (2018) colloquium talk first brought this issue to my attention and raised the question of everyone being ‘multilingual’ and able to ‘language’ in some form, with scholars like Wei (2018) proposing that this is indeed a practical linguistic theory and by extension challenging the idea of named languages.
In hindsight, this notion was prevalent throughout the Attitudes to Language module, during which I was introduced to Snell’s (2013) observation that “[r]ather than distinct language varieties and systematic difference we find complex mixing within speakers’ repertoires” and this being an accurate representation of how language is used. In Language and Inter-Action, I had even discussed my father’s use of differing varieties of English depending on the addressee or “style-shifting” (Bullock and Toribio, 2012) and how speakers can resort to using an alternate language to avoid being overheard (Clark and Schaefer, 1992). This idea of context determining one’s language use (or lack thereof) inspired my think piece on the rationale behind CS. I had previously studied it from an angle concerning how heavily multilinguals’ repertoires were influenced by factors like this (among others) for my Sociolinguistics project, which also incorporated theories like motivation (Dörnyei, 2005; Ushioda, 2008) from Language Acquisition.
Although this study mainly focused on named languages and the reasons they were acquired, it concluded that context had the greatest impact because the participants all learned their additional tongues for social purposes, in the same way the think piece argues that it underpins CS. This is due to the specific languages the bilingual switches between and, ultimately, the grounds inciting CS in the first place being dictated by one’s circumstances, namely the people, places and situations involved. Evidently, my appreciation for Language and Society has inspired most of my work and the course my degree has taken over the last three years, having prompted me to select modules like Sociolinguistics, Attitudes to Language and Language and Identities.
The latter was inevitable as it is an area I have become increasingly interested in as the programme has progressed, possibly because of my life-long pride in relation to being bilingual, and having always attempted to mention this and use Dutch at (mostly) every relevant opportunity. One of the main purposes that serves CS is indexing identity, a key aspect in my own personal experiences as I relished being the ‘exotic’ student in class after I migrated to the UK and enjoyed showcasing my unique linguistic skillset to my peers, in part because I simply had an ability that they did not. On the other hand, I have always assumed that losing my mother (my Dutch parent) led me to embrace my identity and develop a greater passion for our homeland, possibly to a significantly greater degree than I would have done if she had not have passed away. Thus, linguistically displaying my national pride has also been a homage to her in some respect.
In recent literature, it appears that CS has influenced World Englishes owing to the emerging discussion considering code-switched varieties as types of such (Bullock, Hinrichs and Toribio, 2014), with other work centring around the orthography of creoles and standard varieties online (Hinrichs and White-Sustaíta, 2011). As previously stated, translanguaging is also an expanding avenue of research and one that continues to question the fixed terms we have in place for individuals at all levels of linguistic ability. Perhaps these and other realms of CS and sub-disciplines of linguistics shall soon uncover a more accurate description of how we really use language, in addition to further contributing to the non-exhaustive list of CS’ uses.
To conclude, I have attempted to communicate how bilinguals code-switch, their reasons for doing so and the different areas in society it affects and can be found in. Given the current climate regarding our society as part a heavily-globalised world and, more specifically, a nation with a notoriously monolingual ideology, understanding and advocating CS is crucial in changing perceptions and embracing the increasingly multilingual linguistic landscape we live in.
References:
Bullock, B. E. and Toribio, A. J. eds. (2012) The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-Switching. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Bullock, B. E., Hinrichs, L. and Toribio, A. J. (2014) World Englishes, code-switching, and convergence. In: Filppula, M., Klemola, J. and Sharma, D. (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 211-231.
Canagarajah, S. (2013) Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan Relations. London, Routledge.
Danjo, C. (2018) “Making sense of family language policy: Japanese-English Bilingual children’s creative and strategic translingual practices” Languages and Linguistics Colloquium Series, York St John University, York, UK.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005) The psychology of the language learner: individual differences in second language acquisition. New Jersey, L. Erlbaum.
García, O. (2009) Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Gardner-Chloros, P. (2012) Sociolinguistic factors in code-switching. In: Bullock, B. E. and Toribio, A. J. (eds.) The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-Switching. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 97-113.
Gogolin, I. (1997) The "monolingual habitus" as the common feature in teaching in the language of the majority in different countries. Per Linguam [Internet], 13 (2), pp. 38-49. Available from: http://perlinguam.journals.ac.za/pub/article/viewFile/187/298 [Accessed 7th November 2017].
Hinrichs, L. and White-Sustaíta, J. (2011) Global englishes and the sociolinguistics of spelling: A study of Jamaican blog and email writing. ENGLISH WORLD-WIDE [Internet], 32 (1), pp. 46-74. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edswah/00030588200003?target=edsn [Accessed 21st March 2018].
Ncoko, S. O. S., Osman, R. and Cockcroft, K. (2000) Codeswitching Among Multilingual Learners in Primary Schools in South Africa: An Exploratory Study. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism [Internet], 3 (4), pp. 225-242. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edsbl/RN090528968 [Accessed 16th March 2018].
Pagett, L. (2006) Mum and Dad prefer me to speak Bengali at home: code switching and parallel speech in a primary school setting. Literacy [Internet], 40 (3), pp. 137-146. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/psyh/2006-20662-003 [Accessed 16th March 2018].
Sebba, M. (2018) Awkward Questions: Language Issues in the 2011 Census in England. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development [Internet], 39 (2), pp. 181-194. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/eric/EJ1169247 [Accessed 12th March 2018].
Snell, J. (2013) Dialect, Interaction and Class Positioning at School: From Deficit to Difference to Repertoire. Language and Education [Internet], 27 (2). pp. 110-128. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edsbl/RN327202752 [Accessed 10th November 2017].
Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Clarke, P. (2000) Supporting identity, diversity and language in the early years. Buckingham, Open University Press.
Ushioda, E. (2008) Motivation and good language learners. In: Griffiths, C. (ed.) Lessons from good language learners. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 19-34.
Wei, L. (2018) Translanguaging as a Practical Theory of Language. Applied Linguistics [Internet], 39 (1), pp. 9-31. Available from: https://capitadiscovery.co.uk/yorksj/items/eds/edswss/000424888700002 [Accessed 18th March 2018].
Williams, C. (2002). Extending bilingualism in the education system. Education and lifelong learning committee ELL-06-02. Available from: http://www.assemblywales.org/3c91c7af00023d820000595000000000.pdf [Accessed 18th March 2018].
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Images/Media:
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Facebook (2017) https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=1423666504365708&set=a.633933890005644.1073741826.100001671151869&type=3&theater [Accessed 21st March 2018].
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WhatsApp (2017) My own personal archives.